Post by Víðarr on Nov 16, 2014 21:01:36 GMT
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Family classification
Brassicaceae is the botanical family name given to a number of angiosperms which share the same characteristics.
The family consists of annual, biennial and perennial herbacious plants, but also rarely includes small shrubs such as Zilla spinosa. The leaves are simple rather than compound and usually alternate, with unicellular simple or branched hairs. Stipules are absent.
The inflorescence will usually appear as a raceme or corymb, and bracts or bracteoles will almost always be absent.
The flowers are usually actinomorphic and bisexual. The calyx is 4 free sepals in 2 whorls, which alternate with the corolla of 4 free petals. The petals often form a cross and are elongated into a 'claw' at the base.
The 6 stamen are arranged in tetradynamous fashion – an outer whorl of 2 short stamen, and an inner whorl of 4 long stamen. The anthers face inwards, and the ovary is superior.
The fruit of Brassicaceae plants is a pod-like capsule which is refered to as being 'siliqua' if it is at least 3 times as broad as long. If it doesn't fit this criteria, it is known to be 'silicula'. When the fruit dehisces, it creates a partition with the seeds still attached.
A systematically important feature of the fruit is that it can be flattened in 2 ways – either parallel or at right angles to the replum.
The seed characteristics are also of systematic importance, as it has a large embryo, but little to no endosperm. The seed-coat is often mucilanginous.
Introduction
The family Brassicaceae contains many diverse plants, both from a cultural and economic perspective. In this regard, the actual uses of certain plants within this family can vary wildly; from plants valued greatly for their leaves, flowers, roots or seeds, to foods used for human and animal consumption or for agricultural and mechanical reasons.
They can be found in a wide distribution range, across most of the northern temperate globe and especially in the Mediterranean. They were originally found thriving in a climate which mainly consisted of mild winters followed by dry summers, although selective breeding, cultivation and natural evolution have seen some species (such as B. oleracea) adapt to a variety of climatic situations.
Previously, the family was officially known as Cruciferae. The word Cruciferae has its etymological root in the Latin word 'crucifer' which means 'cross-bearer', due to the cross-like arrangement of the petals. Colloquially, the family is also referred to as the 'cabbage', 'crucifer' or 'mustard' family, although this is strictly incorrect.
The name Cruciferae however, is one of only 8 officially authorised alternative family names accepted by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature which does not contain the suffix -aceae.
The easiest genus within the family to discuss for a manuscript such as this would be the Brassica - from which the family takes its current name - simply because this genus is well known for producing a whole range of cultivars which are used for culinary purposes. However, whilst not excluding this genus, this essay will examine the uses of some of the more obscure genera in the family, and will also endeavour to examine the potential uses of such plants.
The wide-range of uses for genera within this family - particularly from a culinary perspective – make it a particularly relevant group to study, as their use often has an effect on society which is
personal. It is this which makes Brassicacea a family of plants of which study is particularly
useful and of interest.
Actual and potential uses of plants in the Brassicaceae family
In studying the uses of the family Brassicaceae, it is near-impossible not to separate the genera in order to make an effective evaluation. It is, however, possible to group the uses of plants within this family depending on which purpose they serve. Genera used for producing food and medicine can be grouped into a sector labelled 'human use', for instance.
Brassicaceae do indeed have 'human uses', especially in a culinary sense – cooking is important to people the world over, and it is a practice in which one genus in particular is prevalent – Brassica.
Brassica is perhaps the best-known genus within the family simply because of the amount of different food-stuffs which are cultivated from it. The Celts probably first cultivated B. oleracea for human consumption in the form of kale. As well as kale, this species produces cultivars from which the common vegetables cabbage, cauliflower, sprout, broccoli and kohlrabi are grown. Other species in the genus produce vegetables such as turnip and rapeseed. Consumption figures show that the growth of B. oleracea as food is particularly important, as the statistics prove that the amount eaten per person has been steadily increasing - broccoli consumption in the USA for instance has increased four-fold in the past 30 years. This species is amongst the most diverse in terms of which part of the crop can be used – from edible inflorescences (broccoli, cauliflower) to edible leaves (the kales) and even its unopened buds which can be picked and eaten, as in the case of Brussels sprouts.
Brassicaceae roots and seed also produce many table-top condiments. Wasabia japonica produces wasabi sauce, a 'hot' horseradish popular in Japan. The more standard European horseradish is cultivated from the root of the Amoracia rusticana, and common English mustard is derived from the seed of the Brassica juncea.
As well as the other Brassicaceae plants which produce food for human consumption (notably Raphanus sativus and Amoracia rusticana) the family also contains plant genera which are used for animal consumption such as Zilla and Foleyola. These are especially useful for industry as they are grown to feed working animals such as donkeys or camels. While use of the plants as fodder (whole, unrefined plants) are commonplace, specialty canola meal has also been developed from B. napus and is used by companies who operate larger-scale livestock feeding systems.
B. napus is also a very useful plant in supporting the wider ecosystem in whichever area it is grown. This is particularly true as it is a hardy early-Spring flowering plant, which allows honeybees to thrive whilst making vast quantities of honey. The honey which is produced from the B. napus plant is peppery in taste, and is often blended with milder honey and sold to the baked-goods industry. Bee-keepers and rapeseed growers are usually in business with one another, proving that use of this particular Brassicaceae helps sustain the wider monetary economy.
Brassicaceae are often utilised by people who wish to maintain a healthy mind and body. B. napus for example produces canola oil which is seen as a healthy cooking alternative to other vegetable oils, due to its low saturated fat content and its high concentration of poly and mono-unsaturated fats, which are proven to be useful in maintaining good health. In addition to this use, the family contains plants which are
also used as anti-bacterial oils (B. nigra), a coagulant (Capsella bursa-pastoris), and as a promotor of libido (Lepidium peruvianum). One recent study also suggests
that heavily increased intake of cruciferous vegetables amongst smokers will '...reduce the risk of lung cancer...'.
Another family plant, Isatis tinctoria, was traditionally used to make dyes for war-paint and clothing, although it has now been largely replaced with synthetic dyes. This plant, like most Brassicaceae, contains large amounts of glucobrassicin, which is thought to help prevent many different types of cancer.
Brassicaceae are particularly important for botanical and educational reasons. Arabidopsis thaliana is considered to be the most important plant from a plant-science point of view, including the study of plant genetics, evolution and development. The fact that A. thaliana is small in terms of its genome, and that fact that it is a diploid, makes it the ideal plant for genetic mapping and sequencing. The small physical size of the plant is also useful in saving space in laboratory conditions and so it is often used in those situations. Being an ephemeral plant, the lifecycle can be as little as 6 weeks from germination to seed – a trait which is useful for scientists, as most research on the plant can be conducted within an extremely short (relatively speaking) period of time.
Work undertaken to assign specific roles to A. thaliana's genes has also been helpful in ascertaining the molecular behaviour of many plant genera, including the way they develop and sense light.
In addition to A. thaliana, B. rapa also displays some benficial physiological and physical properties in regards to the research of plant genetics. Again, these beneficial properties are a short cyclical life span combined with a small size and spread. These properties combined with the prevalence of Brassicaceae in commercial cultivation (especially as food) make B. rapa a particularly apt species to use for research.
This notion has proved to be true in the case of the Wisconsin Fast Plants Program®, which has discovered through selective breeding and research '...150 genetic traits [which have been] described that are useful in research, many of which are used in thousands of classrooms worldwide to study many aspects of plant growth and development.'.
The primary goal of the program was originally to study a variety of different Brassica species in order to try and improve the resistance of all cruciferous plants to disease. To speed up the research time, the lead scientist and founder of the project Prof. Emeritus Paul H. Williams purposefully began breeding B. rapa, selecting plants which were both small and completed their life cycle quickly. This proves again that Brassicaceae can be useful for the current small size, spread, and short cycle of some varieties when in a laboratory setting.
The developers of the program also encourage youngsters and plant-enthusiasts alike to grow their own B. rapa whilst becoming involved in the scientific study themselves, via their downloadable worksheet (FastPlants.org). The implications of this suggest that Brassicaceae is indirectly being used to encourage education, as well as the plant itself being directly involved in that educational process via propagation and cultivation.
Another area of use in which Brassicaceae has huge importance is the biotechnical, automotive and mechanical fields. One crop of Brassicaceae in particular can be found being used in these areas – B. napus; the common rape plant. B. napus also has a variety of subspecies which are also utilised in these industries, and together with their parent plant they provide oils which are widely used for lubrication. For example, 'total loss' chainsaw lubricants are usually found to be 70% canola oil, which shows their use in maintaining machinery.
The rise in worldwide concern about air pollution and the side-effects of petroleum used in vehicles has seen a rise in the use of rapeseed oil for powering combustion-driven engines, most notably farmyard machinery and personal automobiles. This serves to create a knock-on effect which sees Brassicaceae become a useful plant family in the movement to reduce man-made pollution. Soyatech LLC, a company producing soy, also suggest that the production of rapeseed oil for this purpose creates canola meal (which can be used as animal feed) as a by-product, therefore being useful in resource management and potentially saving producers money when compared to purchasing conventional feed, as there is no wastage from the processing procedure.
Biofuel also has many other uses and can be used to run household boilers, power generators or even aircraft.
Brassicaceae is often used as a purely ornamental plant, whether that be in pots, in a herbacious border or as wall flowers. Erysimum chieri produces warm colours, which make it an ideal partner in a herbacious border. Its noticeable fragrance could perhaps make it a very useful plant in scent gardens. Cardamine concatenata is used for woodland plantings. Due to the appearance of its perianth, its size, and the white colour of its corolla, it could be used as the perfect complimentary plant for something such as Gilanthus nivalis or Leucojum vernum – its extremely similar form but different markings could help provide interest in any woodland planting scheme containing a combination of these plants.
Matthiola longipetala has strong colours and an even stronger night-time scent. As well as being utilised in borders, the previously mentioned characteristics could perhaps make it a useful flower for helping with symptoms of dementia. Dementia sufferers - especially those who suffer from Alzheimers - can begin to demonstrate normal memory recall capabilities if visual and olfactory stimuli are introduced to the surrounding areas. This suggests that a possible use for some of the strongest coloured or smelling Brassicaceae would be to plant on or around windows in dementia care homes, as it could help manage the residents'symptoms.
Another possible use of Brassicaceae, and in particular B. oleracea, could be to treat or relieve the symptoms of common discomforts. Broccoli, for instance, has been proven to boost the immune system, as well as regulating digestion and blood pressure. This suggests that greater intakes of the micro and phytonutrients contained in this Brassicaceae vegetable could help improve common ailments such as irritable bowel syndrome. In addition to this, other cruciferous vegetables are also high in fibre and (with more research) could perhaps be actively used to help prevent things such as bowel cancer, as well as to promote overall health and well-being.
Brassicaceae plants are not without their restrictions. Canola oil made from B. napus cannot be used in the feed of any animals which are being reared for organic produce. This is because the majority (>90%) of canola is produced from genetically modified plants owned by the Monsanto Corporation. Monsanto have bred their plants to be resistant to their herbicide 'Round-Up', which allows them to regulate pest control without killing the crop. GMO crops are not in keeping with the ethics of organic growing.
Some genera also have their cultivation restricted due to their invasive nature. Growth of Alliaria petiolata is heavily regulated in several US states and Rorippa austriaca is under similar restriction due to the aggressive nature of its growth.
As well as these political restrictions, obvious growing restrictions apply if attempting to cultivate in a non-laboratory setting. As with all plants, cultivation could be extremely difficult if the correct climate and nutrient requirements aren't met. Although not all Brassicaceae like the same conditions, most will thrive in a standard potting mix and mild winters followed by warm dry summers.
Conclusion
It is fair to say that although Brassicaceae plants have a wide scope when it comes to how they are used, most of their use (as with most plants) is concerned with human advancement. They provide nourishment and sustenance for the planet with their ability to be cooked and eaten, they provide our animals and machinery with the fuel they need to perform their designated tasks and one variety can produce the oil used to cook another. The study of this family has led to the advancement of plant biology and genetics, and in particular has led to a greater understanding of the growth and behavioural habits of many hundreds of thousands of plants in many different families, which in turn has helped to produce stronger, disease-resisting cultivars – important when so many of the family are relied upon for food. Its health, educational and ecological benefits have been utilised by mankind for centuries. It is this human element which makes Brassicaceae one of the most important and useful group of plants on the planet.
Family classification
Brassicaceae is the botanical family name given to a number of angiosperms which share the same characteristics.
The family consists of annual, biennial and perennial herbacious plants, but also rarely includes small shrubs such as Zilla spinosa. The leaves are simple rather than compound and usually alternate, with unicellular simple or branched hairs. Stipules are absent.
The inflorescence will usually appear as a raceme or corymb, and bracts or bracteoles will almost always be absent.
The flowers are usually actinomorphic and bisexual. The calyx is 4 free sepals in 2 whorls, which alternate with the corolla of 4 free petals. The petals often form a cross and are elongated into a 'claw' at the base.
The 6 stamen are arranged in tetradynamous fashion – an outer whorl of 2 short stamen, and an inner whorl of 4 long stamen. The anthers face inwards, and the ovary is superior.
The fruit of Brassicaceae plants is a pod-like capsule which is refered to as being 'siliqua' if it is at least 3 times as broad as long. If it doesn't fit this criteria, it is known to be 'silicula'. When the fruit dehisces, it creates a partition with the seeds still attached.
A systematically important feature of the fruit is that it can be flattened in 2 ways – either parallel or at right angles to the replum.
The seed characteristics are also of systematic importance, as it has a large embryo, but little to no endosperm. The seed-coat is often mucilanginous.
Introduction
The family Brassicaceae contains many diverse plants, both from a cultural and economic perspective. In this regard, the actual uses of certain plants within this family can vary wildly; from plants valued greatly for their leaves, flowers, roots or seeds, to foods used for human and animal consumption or for agricultural and mechanical reasons.
They can be found in a wide distribution range, across most of the northern temperate globe and especially in the Mediterranean. They were originally found thriving in a climate which mainly consisted of mild winters followed by dry summers, although selective breeding, cultivation and natural evolution have seen some species (such as B. oleracea) adapt to a variety of climatic situations.
Previously, the family was officially known as Cruciferae. The word Cruciferae has its etymological root in the Latin word 'crucifer' which means 'cross-bearer', due to the cross-like arrangement of the petals. Colloquially, the family is also referred to as the 'cabbage', 'crucifer' or 'mustard' family, although this is strictly incorrect.
The name Cruciferae however, is one of only 8 officially authorised alternative family names accepted by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature which does not contain the suffix -aceae.
The easiest genus within the family to discuss for a manuscript such as this would be the Brassica - from which the family takes its current name - simply because this genus is well known for producing a whole range of cultivars which are used for culinary purposes. However, whilst not excluding this genus, this essay will examine the uses of some of the more obscure genera in the family, and will also endeavour to examine the potential uses of such plants.
The wide-range of uses for genera within this family - particularly from a culinary perspective – make it a particularly relevant group to study, as their use often has an effect on society which is
personal. It is this which makes Brassicacea a family of plants of which study is particularly
useful and of interest.
Actual and potential uses of plants in the Brassicaceae family
In studying the uses of the family Brassicaceae, it is near-impossible not to separate the genera in order to make an effective evaluation. It is, however, possible to group the uses of plants within this family depending on which purpose they serve. Genera used for producing food and medicine can be grouped into a sector labelled 'human use', for instance.
Brassicaceae do indeed have 'human uses', especially in a culinary sense – cooking is important to people the world over, and it is a practice in which one genus in particular is prevalent – Brassica.
Brassica is perhaps the best-known genus within the family simply because of the amount of different food-stuffs which are cultivated from it. The Celts probably first cultivated B. oleracea for human consumption in the form of kale. As well as kale, this species produces cultivars from which the common vegetables cabbage, cauliflower, sprout, broccoli and kohlrabi are grown. Other species in the genus produce vegetables such as turnip and rapeseed. Consumption figures show that the growth of B. oleracea as food is particularly important, as the statistics prove that the amount eaten per person has been steadily increasing - broccoli consumption in the USA for instance has increased four-fold in the past 30 years. This species is amongst the most diverse in terms of which part of the crop can be used – from edible inflorescences (broccoli, cauliflower) to edible leaves (the kales) and even its unopened buds which can be picked and eaten, as in the case of Brussels sprouts.
Brassicaceae roots and seed also produce many table-top condiments. Wasabia japonica produces wasabi sauce, a 'hot' horseradish popular in Japan. The more standard European horseradish is cultivated from the root of the Amoracia rusticana, and common English mustard is derived from the seed of the Brassica juncea.
As well as the other Brassicaceae plants which produce food for human consumption (notably Raphanus sativus and Amoracia rusticana) the family also contains plant genera which are used for animal consumption such as Zilla and Foleyola. These are especially useful for industry as they are grown to feed working animals such as donkeys or camels. While use of the plants as fodder (whole, unrefined plants) are commonplace, specialty canola meal has also been developed from B. napus and is used by companies who operate larger-scale livestock feeding systems.
B. napus is also a very useful plant in supporting the wider ecosystem in whichever area it is grown. This is particularly true as it is a hardy early-Spring flowering plant, which allows honeybees to thrive whilst making vast quantities of honey. The honey which is produced from the B. napus plant is peppery in taste, and is often blended with milder honey and sold to the baked-goods industry. Bee-keepers and rapeseed growers are usually in business with one another, proving that use of this particular Brassicaceae helps sustain the wider monetary economy.
Brassicaceae are often utilised by people who wish to maintain a healthy mind and body. B. napus for example produces canola oil which is seen as a healthy cooking alternative to other vegetable oils, due to its low saturated fat content and its high concentration of poly and mono-unsaturated fats, which are proven to be useful in maintaining good health. In addition to this use, the family contains plants which are
also used as anti-bacterial oils (B. nigra), a coagulant (Capsella bursa-pastoris), and as a promotor of libido (Lepidium peruvianum). One recent study also suggests
that heavily increased intake of cruciferous vegetables amongst smokers will '...reduce the risk of lung cancer...'.
Another family plant, Isatis tinctoria, was traditionally used to make dyes for war-paint and clothing, although it has now been largely replaced with synthetic dyes. This plant, like most Brassicaceae, contains large amounts of glucobrassicin, which is thought to help prevent many different types of cancer.
Brassicaceae are particularly important for botanical and educational reasons. Arabidopsis thaliana is considered to be the most important plant from a plant-science point of view, including the study of plant genetics, evolution and development. The fact that A. thaliana is small in terms of its genome, and that fact that it is a diploid, makes it the ideal plant for genetic mapping and sequencing. The small physical size of the plant is also useful in saving space in laboratory conditions and so it is often used in those situations. Being an ephemeral plant, the lifecycle can be as little as 6 weeks from germination to seed – a trait which is useful for scientists, as most research on the plant can be conducted within an extremely short (relatively speaking) period of time.
Work undertaken to assign specific roles to A. thaliana's genes has also been helpful in ascertaining the molecular behaviour of many plant genera, including the way they develop and sense light.
In addition to A. thaliana, B. rapa also displays some benficial physiological and physical properties in regards to the research of plant genetics. Again, these beneficial properties are a short cyclical life span combined with a small size and spread. These properties combined with the prevalence of Brassicaceae in commercial cultivation (especially as food) make B. rapa a particularly apt species to use for research.
This notion has proved to be true in the case of the Wisconsin Fast Plants Program®, which has discovered through selective breeding and research '...150 genetic traits [which have been] described that are useful in research, many of which are used in thousands of classrooms worldwide to study many aspects of plant growth and development.'.
The primary goal of the program was originally to study a variety of different Brassica species in order to try and improve the resistance of all cruciferous plants to disease. To speed up the research time, the lead scientist and founder of the project Prof. Emeritus Paul H. Williams purposefully began breeding B. rapa, selecting plants which were both small and completed their life cycle quickly. This proves again that Brassicaceae can be useful for the current small size, spread, and short cycle of some varieties when in a laboratory setting.
The developers of the program also encourage youngsters and plant-enthusiasts alike to grow their own B. rapa whilst becoming involved in the scientific study themselves, via their downloadable worksheet (FastPlants.org). The implications of this suggest that Brassicaceae is indirectly being used to encourage education, as well as the plant itself being directly involved in that educational process via propagation and cultivation.
Another area of use in which Brassicaceae has huge importance is the biotechnical, automotive and mechanical fields. One crop of Brassicaceae in particular can be found being used in these areas – B. napus; the common rape plant. B. napus also has a variety of subspecies which are also utilised in these industries, and together with their parent plant they provide oils which are widely used for lubrication. For example, 'total loss' chainsaw lubricants are usually found to be 70% canola oil, which shows their use in maintaining machinery.
The rise in worldwide concern about air pollution and the side-effects of petroleum used in vehicles has seen a rise in the use of rapeseed oil for powering combustion-driven engines, most notably farmyard machinery and personal automobiles. This serves to create a knock-on effect which sees Brassicaceae become a useful plant family in the movement to reduce man-made pollution. Soyatech LLC, a company producing soy, also suggest that the production of rapeseed oil for this purpose creates canola meal (which can be used as animal feed) as a by-product, therefore being useful in resource management and potentially saving producers money when compared to purchasing conventional feed, as there is no wastage from the processing procedure.
Biofuel also has many other uses and can be used to run household boilers, power generators or even aircraft.
Brassicaceae is often used as a purely ornamental plant, whether that be in pots, in a herbacious border or as wall flowers. Erysimum chieri produces warm colours, which make it an ideal partner in a herbacious border. Its noticeable fragrance could perhaps make it a very useful plant in scent gardens. Cardamine concatenata is used for woodland plantings. Due to the appearance of its perianth, its size, and the white colour of its corolla, it could be used as the perfect complimentary plant for something such as Gilanthus nivalis or Leucojum vernum – its extremely similar form but different markings could help provide interest in any woodland planting scheme containing a combination of these plants.
Matthiola longipetala has strong colours and an even stronger night-time scent. As well as being utilised in borders, the previously mentioned characteristics could perhaps make it a useful flower for helping with symptoms of dementia. Dementia sufferers - especially those who suffer from Alzheimers - can begin to demonstrate normal memory recall capabilities if visual and olfactory stimuli are introduced to the surrounding areas. This suggests that a possible use for some of the strongest coloured or smelling Brassicaceae would be to plant on or around windows in dementia care homes, as it could help manage the residents'symptoms.
Another possible use of Brassicaceae, and in particular B. oleracea, could be to treat or relieve the symptoms of common discomforts. Broccoli, for instance, has been proven to boost the immune system, as well as regulating digestion and blood pressure. This suggests that greater intakes of the micro and phytonutrients contained in this Brassicaceae vegetable could help improve common ailments such as irritable bowel syndrome. In addition to this, other cruciferous vegetables are also high in fibre and (with more research) could perhaps be actively used to help prevent things such as bowel cancer, as well as to promote overall health and well-being.
Brassicaceae plants are not without their restrictions. Canola oil made from B. napus cannot be used in the feed of any animals which are being reared for organic produce. This is because the majority (>90%) of canola is produced from genetically modified plants owned by the Monsanto Corporation. Monsanto have bred their plants to be resistant to their herbicide 'Round-Up', which allows them to regulate pest control without killing the crop. GMO crops are not in keeping with the ethics of organic growing.
Some genera also have their cultivation restricted due to their invasive nature. Growth of Alliaria petiolata is heavily regulated in several US states and Rorippa austriaca is under similar restriction due to the aggressive nature of its growth.
As well as these political restrictions, obvious growing restrictions apply if attempting to cultivate in a non-laboratory setting. As with all plants, cultivation could be extremely difficult if the correct climate and nutrient requirements aren't met. Although not all Brassicaceae like the same conditions, most will thrive in a standard potting mix and mild winters followed by warm dry summers.
Conclusion
It is fair to say that although Brassicaceae plants have a wide scope when it comes to how they are used, most of their use (as with most plants) is concerned with human advancement. They provide nourishment and sustenance for the planet with their ability to be cooked and eaten, they provide our animals and machinery with the fuel they need to perform their designated tasks and one variety can produce the oil used to cook another. The study of this family has led to the advancement of plant biology and genetics, and in particular has led to a greater understanding of the growth and behavioural habits of many hundreds of thousands of plants in many different families, which in turn has helped to produce stronger, disease-resisting cultivars – important when so many of the family are relied upon for food. Its health, educational and ecological benefits have been utilised by mankind for centuries. It is this human element which makes Brassicaceae one of the most important and useful group of plants on the planet.